Category: Endocrinology
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Hyperglycemic emergencies: diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemia state
Definition Diabetes Spectrum. January 2002 vol. 15 no. 1 28-36 CMAJ. 2003 Apr 1;168(7):859-66. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), the hallmark of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS), primarily seen in type 2 diabetes (T2DM), are hyperglycemic emergencies that may lead to death if untreated. They are both associated with: Insulin deficiency (absolute […]
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Sex hormone synthesis, regulation, and function
Sex hormone synthesis Annu Rev Physiol. 2001;63:193-213. Endocr Rev. 2011 Feb;32(1):81-151. Endocr Rev. 2005 May;26(3):322-30. Fertil Steril. 2002 Apr;77 Suppl 4:S3-5. The hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis Sex hormone synthesis is controlled by the pulsatile release of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) At the pituitary gland, GnRH stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) into the general circulation […]
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Menopause
Menopausal transition Ann Intern Med. 2009 Apr 7;150(7):ITC4-1-15 Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2009 Feb;23(1):25-32. Med Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;92(5):1253-71, xii. Williams Gynecology, ch. 16, 21 Definitions and overview Menopause: point in time 1 year after the cessation of menstruation (retroactive definition) Menopausal transition: the time period from menstrual cycle irregularity to final menstrual period Perimenopause: […]
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Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
Definition J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2010 May;32(5):423-5, 426-8. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011 Apr;7(4):219-31. PCOS is characterized by hyperandrogenism, irregular ovulatory cycles, and a metabolic derangement including glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia. Manifestations of PCOS are heterogeneous, and several consensus definitions of the disorder have been produced to describe the disease, with various emphases on clinical or biochemical hyperandrogenism, […]
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Calcium homeostasis and osteoporosis
Calcium homeostasis N Engl J Med. 2007 Jul 19;357(3):266-81. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010 Jan;5 Suppl 1:S23-30. Clin Chem. 1999 Aug;45(8 Pt 2):1347-52. Calcium is found primarily in bone (99%), blood and ECF. The overall goal of calcium homestasis is to maintain biologically active ionized [Ca] within a narrow acceptable range (1.1-1.4 mmol/L) in order for critical functions […]